i, pp. [1] They are distributed worldwide, and have been isolated from soil, air, sewage, seawater, chlorinated swimming pools, domestic tap water, bottled water, dental treatment units, hospitals, air-conditioning units, and contact lens cases. Researchers found that E. histolytica instead contain golgi-like compartments or vesicles small fluid-filled pouches that execute similar functions. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128000496002547 (opens in new tab), Oliva, G., Sahr, T., & Buchrieser, C. (2018). In addition to computational searches and microarrays, some asRNAs were discovered by sequencing cDNA clones as well as mapping promoter elements. [32] Metronidazole is also generally thought to inhibit the liver metabolism of propylene glycol (found in some foods, medicines, and in many electronic cigarette e-liquids), thus propylene glycol may potentially have similar interaction effects with metronidazole. sub-phylum. This and similar concepts of Protozoa are of a paraphyletic group which does not include all organisms that descended from Protozoa. Mitotic cells irradiated with X-rays in the G1 phase of the cell cycle repair recombinogenic DNA damages primarily by recombination between homologous chromosomes. Although care has been taken whenpreparing [70] The mitoses must be counted in an area of the highest mitotic activity. - This is a flagellate that lives in the blood https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2019.08.008 (opens in new tab), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. D. Nori, J. M. Cain, B. S. Hilaris, W. B. Jones, J. L. Lewis: J.Overgaard, H.S.Hansen, M.Overgaard, L.Bastholt, A.Berthelsen, L.Specht, et al. As such, the chromatic is scattered resulting in a Classes that fall under this Following this stage, some in the population [57][67] The cells then re-enter G1 and S phase and replicate their chromosomes again. Prokaryotic cells, which lack a nucleus, divide by a different process called binary fission[citation needed]. Sera from 15 patients with Entamoeba histolytica infection were tested for anti T-cell antibodies by assessing cross-reacting specificities with the antigens defined by an anti-Ia hybridoma antibody. The protozoon Ophryocystis elektroscirrha is a parasite of butterfly larvae, passed from female to caterpillar. Because the regulatory mechanism of asRNAs are found to be species specific, asRNAs can also be classified by species. Bernstein H, Bernstein C (2013). Bogitsh, B. J., Carter, C. E., & Oeltmann, T. N. (2019). Most amoebas are present within the Amoebozoa group, though, Maciver said. [13] In 1835, the German botanist Hugo von Mohl, described cell division in the green algae Cladophora glomerata, stating that multiplication of cells occurs through cell division. They can also target multiple loci. The following are some of the free-living amoebae Classes that fall under this [18][19], Btschli, Schneider and Fol might have also claimed the discovery of the process presently known as "mitosis". For example, in mammals, the asRNA HOTAIR is transcribed from homeobox C (HOXC) locus but it recruits PRC2 to HOXD which deposits H3K27 and silences HOXD. nucleus that is diffuse in appearance. Ciliata (which use cilia throughout) and Suctoria (which use cilia They exist as free-living organisms or as parasites. [2][51] This function only occurs when metronidazole is partially reduced, and because this reduction usually happens only in anaerobic bacteria and protozoans, it has relatively little effect upon human cells or aerobic bacteria. [13], In May 2007, Advanced Medical Optics, manufacturer of Complete Moisture Plus Contact Lens Solution products, issued a voluntary recall of their Complete Moisture Plus solutions. Upon interactions with the targeting mRNAs, cis-acting asRNAs can either block ribosome binding or recruit RNAase to degrade the targeting mRNAs. [49] Although the kinetochore structure and function are not fully understood, it is known that it contains some form of molecular motor. Some of the medium used include split pea (for Eglena) distilled [48][49][50] Examples of such medications are lomitapide, warfarin, etc. Add To Cart . In cell biology, an organelle is a specialized subunit, usually within a cell, that has a specific function.The name organelle comes from the idea that these structures are parts of cells, as organs are to the body, hence organelle, the suffix -elle being a diminutive.Organelles are either separately enclosed within their own lipid bilayers (also called membrane-bound organelles) or Antisense RNAs can be classified in different ways. [5] Although neurons and glia have been shown to have the ability to freely uptake naked antisense oligonucleotides, a traceable carriers such as virus and lipid vesicles would still be ideal to control and monitor the intracellular concentration and metabolism. Protist, 149: 229-243, M. Dunthorn, T. Stoeck, K. Wolf, H-W. Breiner & W. Foissner (2012) Diversity and endemism of ciliates inhabiting Neotropical phytotelmata, Systematics and Biodiversity, 10:2, 195-205, DOI: 10.1080/14772000.2012.685195, "Not plants or animals: A brief history of the origin of Kingdoms Protozoa, Protista, and Protoctista", "A Higher Level Classification of All Living Organisms", "Kingdoms Protozoa and Chromista and the Eozoan Root of the Eukaryotic Tree", "Protozoa, Protista, Protoctista: What's in a Name? 2. 150 Years of cell division. In terms of drug targets, this represents a huge advantage because only a low dosage is required for effectiveness. [43], Consuming alcohol while taking metronidazole has been suspected in case reports to cause a disulfiram-like reaction with effects that can include nausea, vomiting, flushing of the skin, tachycardia, and shortness of breath. [20] Although it is generally a standard treatment it is associated with some side effects. Biology Class 11. Lsch observed amoebas in ulcers of the colon at necropsy and induced disease in a dog by a rectal inoculation with human feces. The symbionts may be passed along to dinoflagellates of the genus Dinophysis, which prey on Mesodinium rubrum but keep the enslaved plastids for themselves. "They are like our cells, and in fact, when they are moving they look very much like our white blood cells," Maciver said. Food may slow down absorption but does not diminish it. ", "On the distinctions of a plant and an animal, and on a fourth kingdom of nature", "The collapse of the two-kingdom system, the rise of protistology and the founding of the International Society for Evolutionary Protistology (ISEP)", https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814114-4.00003-5, "Resting cysts: A survival strategy in Protozoa Ciliophora", "High-Level Congruence of Myrionecta rubra Prey and Dinophysis Species Plastid Identities as Revealed by Genetic Analyses of Isolates from Japanese Coastal Waters", "The Revised Classification of Eukaryotes", "Monarch butterfly migration and parasite transmission in eastern North America", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Protozoa&oldid=1118038349, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles with unsourced statements from August 2022, Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, Water, contaminated contact lens solution, Undercooked meat, cat feces, fetal infection in pregnancy. [82][83][84] The generation of intracellular pressure is particularly critical under confinement, such as would be important in a tissue scenario, where outward forces must be produced to round up against surrounding cells and/or the extracellular matrix. Metronidazole, sold under the brand name Flagyl among others, is an antibiotic and antiprotozoal medication. As such, they live inside the host and even changes over time. The conversion of a trophozoite to cyst form is known as encystation, while the process of transforming back into a trophozoite is known as excystment. [66] Endomitosis is a variant of endoreduplication in which cells replicate their chromosomes during S phase and enter, but prematurely terminate, mitosis. Amebiasis, or amoebic dysentery, is an infection caused by E. histolytica, a human intestinal parasite, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (opens in new tab) (CDC). For instance, under the microscope. "Rather, amoebae are any protozoan cells that move by crawling." Amoebas are eukaryotes. [53] The serum half-life of hydroxymetronidazole after suppository was 10 hours, 19 hours after intravenous infusion, and 11 hours after a tablet. MicroscopeMaster is not liable for your results or any process known as sporogeny. Members of the genus Acanthamoeba are unusual in serving as hosts for a variety of giant viruses (that have more than 1000 protein-coding genes; for instance, Pandoravirus, which has about 2500 protein-coding genes in its genome). The manufacturer recalled the product after the Centers for Disease Control in the United States found that 21 people had possibly received an Acanthamoeba infection after using Complete Moisture Plus in the month prior to diagnosis. The second process, homologous recombinational repair (HRR), is more accurate than NHEJ in repairing double-strand breaks. As such, they are distinguished from one another based on their In India, it is sold under the brand name Metrogyl and Flagyl. Are communities of heterotrophic flagellates determined by their geography? In nature, Acanthamoeba species are free-living bacterivores, but in certain Most of the photoautotrophic flagellates However, some of the free-living can cause Because each resultant daughter cell should be genetically identical to the parent cell, the parent cell must make a Retrieved January 28, 2022, from https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/acanthamoeba/gen_info/acanthamoeba_keratitis.html (opens in new tab), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. In histopathology, the mitosis rate (mitotic count or mitotic index) is an important parameter in various types of tissue samples, for diagnosis as well as to further specify the aggressiveness of tumors. [1], As a regulatory element, asRNAs bear many advantages to be considered as a drug target. Numerous descriptions of cell division were made during 18th and 19th centuries, with various degrees of accuracy. Return to Cell Biology- Components, Cycles, Processes and Microscopy Techniques, Return from Protozoa to Best Microscope Information and Research. synura and ochromonas among others. In Human parasitology (fifth edition) (5th ed.). Giant amoebae engulf their prey "by the willful gathering of pseudopods around the bacteria." A new nuclear envelope forms around the separated daughter chromosomes, which decondense to form interphase nuclei. is a type of amoeba that lives in the human alimentary canal. The organism may benefit at times by deriving some of its nutrients from the algal endosymbionts or by surviving anoxic conditions because of the oxygen produced by algal photosynthesis. and microbivores). This As cysts, some protozoa can survive harsh conditions, such as exposure to extreme temperatures or harmful chemicals, or long periods without access to nutrients, water, or oxygen. unite and sporiogony occurs in the tissues.. gametes then unite and divide asexually to produce sporozoites through a Because of the high level of total cholesterol (6501000mg/dL) and LDL receptor (above 600mg/dL) in HoFH, patients with HoFH has a high risk for coronary heart disease. Parasites - amebiasis. In the case that the Acanthamoeba is diagnosed correctly, the current treatments, such as amphotericin B, rifampicin, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, ketoconazole, fluconazole, sulfadiazine, or albendazole, are only tentatively successful. "What's known to happen on many occasions, is that we breathe in a droplet of water containing an amoeba that is full of these pathogens [Legionella]," he said. makes this phylum a diverse group of unicellular organisms, varying in shape and diverse. [5] Some state that metronidazole should not be used in early pregnancy, while others state doses for trichomoniasis are safe. Scott has a masters in science and environmental journalism and a bachelor's degree in conservation biology degree from the University of Lincoln in the U.K. During his academic and professional career, Scott has participated in several animal conservation projects, including English bird surveys, wolf monitoring in Germany and leopard tracking in South Africa. Early symptoms include fever and vomiting, and the disease ultimately progresses to more severe symptoms such as hallucinations and coma. It feeds mainly on the tissues of the intestinal wall and often produces severe ulcers and abscesses. "As it contracts, it does two things," he said. [26][27], Common adverse drug reactions (1% of those treated with the drug) associated with systemic metronidazole therapy include: nausea, diarrhea, weight loss, abdominal pain, vomiting, headache, dizziness, and metallic taste in the mouth. [5], Common side effects include nausea, a metallic taste, loss of appetite, and headaches. [31], Many parasitic Protozoa reproduce both asexually and sexually. Animals and fungi are in the group Ophiskontha. Each chromosome has two chromatids. Their role is best conceived within the context of the microbial food web in which they include the most important bacterivores. The phases follow one another in strict order and there are "checkpoints" that give the cell cues to proceed from one phase to another. And if in need of a microscope then be sure to read our Darkfield Microscope Buyer's Guide and Phase Contrast Microscope Buyer's Guide. Acanthamoeba keratitis cases in the past have resolved from a therapy consisting of atropine and some other drugs with no antimicrobial effects. Here, it is worth noting these are very fragile. During anaphase A, the cohesins that bind sister chromatids together are cleaved, forming two identical daughter chromosomes. During prophase, which occurs after G2 interphase, the cell prepares to divide by tightly condensing its chromosomes and initiating mitotic spindle formation. [55] In both animal and plant cells, cell division is also driven by vesicles derived from the Golgi apparatus, which move along microtubules to the middle of the cell. The genome is composed of a number of chromosomescomplexes of tightly coiled DNA that contain genetic information vital for proper cell function. Biology Class 11. During mitotic progression, typically after the anaphase onset, the cell may undergo cytokinesis. [58] In older systems of classification, the phylum Protozoa was commonly divided into several sub-groups, reflecting the means of locomotion. [1] Thirdly, the expression level of asRNAs is very small compared to that of the targeting mRNAs; therefore, only small amount of asRNAs is required to produce an effect. [4] The different stages of mitosis altogether define the mitotic (M) phase of an animal cell cyclethe division of the mother cell into two daughter cells genetically identical to each other. [5], Initial antibiotic therapy for less-severe Clostridioides difficile infection colitis (pseudomembranous colitis) consists of metronidazole, vancomycin, or fidaxomicin by mouth. Gonorrhoea-Entamoeba histolytica (c) Urethritis-Bacillus anthracis (d) Softsore-Bacillus brevis Answer: (a) depend on the host for survival. In this method, one or both strands of encoding genes can be used as probes. [48], Parasitic and symbiotic protozoa live on or within other organisms, including vertebrates and invertebrates, as well as plants and other single-celled organisms. [19], Entamoeba histolytica invasive amebiasis is treated with metronidazole for eradication, in combination with diloxanide to prevent recurrence. The mitotic phase is a relatively short period of the cell cycle. [35], Free-living protozoa are common and often abundant in fresh, brackish and salt water, as well as other moist environments, such as soils and mosses. The most common chemical modification on the oligonucleotides is adding a phosphorothioate linkage to the backbones. [4] Lastly, artificial asRNAs have been shown to have limited intracellular uptake. For example, in bacterial or eukaryotic cells where complex RNA polymerases are present, bidirectional transcription at the same locus can lead to polymerase collision and results in the termination of transcription. Granulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE) is caused by amoebic infection of the central nervous system (CNS). [11][12], The first cure of a corneal infection was achieved in 1985 at Moorfields Eye Hospital. In the context of older ecological models of the micro- and meiofauna, protozoa may be a food source for microinvertebrates. During computational searches, the encoding regions are excluded. Btschli, O. The metabolites show antibiotic and antiprotozoal activity in vitro. It preys on bacteria, but also fungi and other protozoa. [1][15] For some of these bacteria, replication inside Acanthamoeba has been associated with enhanced growth in macrophages, and increased resistance to some antibiotics. BMC Biology, 12(1). For students, it would prove easier to use the free-living [5] However, the phosphrothioate modification can be proinflammatory. [84] Due to its importance in mitosis, the molecular components and dynamics of the mitotic actomyosin cortex is an area of active research. Trophozoite. [50] The ciliate subclass Astomatia is composed entirely of mouthless symbionts adapted for life in the guts of annelid worms. [26] Most disease-causing isolates belong to type T4.[26]. [10][11][12] A scheme presented by Ruggiero et al. Entamoeba histolytica infection can be prevented by. The Gene Ontology (GO) knowledgebase is the worlds largest source of information on the functions of genes. In cold environment, the asRNA of FLC gene, denoted COOLAIR, is expressed and inhibits the expression of FLC via chromatin modification which consequently allows for flowering. This has been restated and explained, especially by Tom Fenchel and Bland Findlay[61] and methodically explored and affirmed at least in respect of morphospecies of free-living flagellates. [32][33], In 2016 metronidazole was listed by the U.S. National Toxicology Program (NTP) as reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen. There are also amoebas that dont have mitochondria, the organelle responsible for generating cellular energy, because they live in environments lacking in oxygen, or "anoxic conditions," Sutherland Maciver, a reader in the department of biomedical sciences at the University of Edinburgh, told Live Science. [4] GAE is caused by the amoebae entering the body through an open wound and then spreading to the brain. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Entamoeba histolytica is a parasite responsible for intestinal amebiasis and possible extraintestinal manifestations, such as liver abscesses. Even when polymerase collision is unlikely during weak transcription, polymerase pausing can also occur which blocks elongation and leads to gene repression. Envir. During mitosis, the chromosomes, which have already duplicated, condense and attach to spindle fibers that pull one copy of each chromosome to opposite sides of the cell. Of those infected, most are infected with the non-pathogenic E. dispar, which has not been associated with disease. the light, these flagellates switch to heterotrophs in the dark. [53] In late anaphase, chromosomes also reach their overall maximal condensation level, to help chromosome segregation and the re-formation of the nucleus. R. W. Hegner (1926) Homologies and Analogies [16], The 5-nitroimidazole drugs (metronidazole and tinidazole) are the mainstay of treatment for infection with Trichomonas vaginalis. The nucleolus, which makes ribosomes in the cell, also disappears. However, each bears some drawbacks. [1], Acanthamoeba spp. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 87(2). Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2018.00003 (opens in new tab), Pawlowski, J. SEM Image of Giardia Protozoan; Image by Janice Carr. Mitosis occurs only in eukaryotic cells. [14][15], Drugs of choice for the treatment of bacterial vaginosis include metronidazole and clindamycin. From the Greek akantha (spike/thorn), which was added before "amoeba" (change) to describe this organism as having a spine-like structure (acanthopodia). The treatment of choice for bacterial vaginosis in nonpregnant women include metronidazole oral twice daily for seven days, or metronidazole gel intravaginally once daily for five days, or clindamycin intravaginally at bedtime for seven days. membrane which bounds the, Compared to other ciliates, the nucleus of Molecular phylogenetics changed the course of taxonomic classification for eukaryotes. Microtubules project from opposite ends of the cell, attach to the centromeres, and align the chromosomes centrally within the cell. start undergoing gametogony (a sexual process) to produce gametes. Scientists just found its long-lost plaster copies. [51], All protozoa are heterotrophic, deriving nutrients from other organisms, either by ingesting them whole by phagocytosis or taking up dissolved organic matter or micro-particles (osmotrophy). FLC gene in Arabidopsis thaliana encodes for a transcription factor that prevent expression of a range of genes that induce floral transition. (2008). Maciver describes these adhesions between an amoeba and the surface on which it moves as physical molecular adhesions, which are constantly formed at the front end and broken at the back. Cytokinesis does not always occur; coenocytic (a type of multinucleate condition) cells undergo mitosis without cytokinesis. complete this cycle in a vertebrate host as they transmit from one host to stream. asRNAs (which occur naturally) have been found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, The resulting tension causes the chromosomes to align along the metaphase plate or equatorial plane, an imaginary line that is centrally located between the two centrosomes (at approximately the midline of the cell). [medical citation needed], Metronidazole is a moderate CYP2C9 inhibitor. cause health problems. Visually identifying these areas, is difficult in tumors with very high mitotic activity. For instance, ANRIL, in addition to the ability to induce DNA methylation, can also repress the neighboring gene of CDKN2B, CDKN2A, by recruiting polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) which leads to histone methylation (H3K27me). FASEB J 21:A1039 (2007). Retrieved January 28, 2022, from https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/amebiasis/index.html (opens in new tab), Chou, A., & Austin, R. L. (2021, April 25). [29] However, the term "mitosis" is also used in a broad sense by some authors to refer to karyokinesis and cytokinesis together. multiply through binary fission. Related: Robert Hooke: English scientist who discovered the cell. those that require energy and organic carbon sources. [52], Oral metronidazole is approximately 80% bioavailable via the gut and peak blood plasma concentrations occur after one to two hours. Most human cells are produced by mitotic cell division. Autotrophs like some of the flagellates Amoebas are single-celled microbes that "crawl," and sometimes, can eat your brain. 2. several problems when it comes to classification. Cancer Biol, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, "Acanthamoeba spp. [33], Protozoa, as traditionally defined, range in size from as little as 1 micrometre to several millimetres, or more. This means that they are single celled organisms that have a nuclei as well as [5] More recently, voltage-gated calcium channels in Acanthamoeba spp. https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.01866-20 (opens in new tab). a cytostome the Sarcodina lack a mouth. They are caused by a variety of pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria, protozoa and parasitic worms ().These diseases are contrasted with the "big three" infectious diseases (HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and 1991. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) suggests it only be used when necessary because it has been shown to be carcinogenic in mice and rats, as well as to prevent antimicrobial resistance. There are also a number of organelles However, there is a need in developing drugs that can activate or upregulate gene expression such as tumor suppressor genes, neuroprotective growth factors and genes that are found silenced in certain Mendelian disorders. Metronidazole belongs to a class of antibiotics known as nitroimidazoles. One possible reason for this problem is the high requirement on the structure of the asRNAs to be recognized by the target sequence and RNase H. A single mismatch can result in distortion in the secondary structure and lead to off target effects. The two centrosomes polymerize tubulin to help form a microtubule spindle apparatus. The phragmoplast is a microtubule structure typical for higher plants, whereas some green algae use a phycoplast microtubule array during cytokinesis. These include Legionella and Legionella-like pathogens. In addition, he noted that amoebas are also present within Rhizaria and Excavata. Some characteristics of this type of asRNAs are described in the cis- and trans- acting asRNAs. In plant cells, a cell plate forms between the two nuclei. Entamoeba Histolytica & Amoebic Dysentery: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment Class & Reproduction B Cell Function & Types | What is a B Cell? causing protozoa falling under the phyla Sacromastigophora and Apicomplexa.if(typeof ez_ad_units!='undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[580,400],'microscopemaster_com-banner-1','ezslot_10',111,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-microscopemaster_com-banner-1-0'); The following are some of the sub-phyla and However, they all Balamuthia mandrillaris - Illness & symptoms. Brain biopsy normally reveals severe oedema and hemorrhagic necrosis. The replication of ColE1 relies on the transcription of a primer RNA named RNA II. Entamoeba histolytica is a human intestinal parasite. radiant energy from the sun is used. include: And if in need of a microscope then be sure to read our. [14] The term Protozoa is formed from the Greek words (prtos), meaning "first", and (za), plural of (zon), meaning "animal". These genes included Spo11, Mre11, Rad50, Rad51, Rad52, Mnd1, Dmc1, Msh, and Mlh. [39]:647,3289 Each daughter cell has a complete copy of the genome of its parent cell. Sporozoa (e.g. This is particularly common among amoebas and Therefore, metronidazole may interact with medications metabolized by this enzyme. [62][63] The widespread distribution of microbial is explained by the ready dispersal of physically small organisms. The misdiagnosis often leads to erroneous, ineffective treatment. [26] However, differentiating one species of Acanthamoeba from another by morphology has proven difficult. In Dosage form design considerations (Vol. prokaryotes) with a more complex structure. [56] Thus, sexuality can be optional. Pellicles of protozoan organisms vary from flexible and elastic to fairly rigid. "If you have a cycle whereby amoeba eat bacteria, the overall effect is to increase nutrient availability for plants," Maciver said. It penetrates well into tissues, the cerebrospinal fluid, the amniotic fluid and breast milk, as well as into abscess cavities. A, normal mitosis; B, chromatin bridge; C, multipolar mitosis; D, ring mitosis; E, dispersed mitosis; F, asymmetrical mitosis; G, lag-type mitosis; and H, micronuclei. This is achieved through the formation of a phragmosome, a transverse sheet of cytoplasm that bisects the cell along the future plane of cell division. [85] Mitotic cells irradiated in the G2 phase repair such damages preferentially by sister-chromatid recombination. thus use flagella for locomotion. Cooling towers tend to expel water droplets, which passersby can breathe in. 2-Methylimidazole is nitrated to give 2-methyl-4(5)-nitroimidazole (2), which is in turn alkylated with ethylene oxide or 2-chloroethanol to give metronidazole (3):[61][62][63], Metronidazole is used to treat infections of Giardia in dogs, cats, and other companion animals, although it does not reliably clear infection with this organism and is being supplanted by fenbendazole for this purpose in dogs and cats. Plankton, and Other Protists (A Class of Their Own). Treatment for both the infected patient and the patient's sexual partner is recommended, even if asymptomatic. For instance, in the, By Donald Hobern from Copenhagen, Denmark (Protozoa sp.) Students can solve NCERT Class 12 Biology Reproductive Health MCQs Pdf with Answers to know their preparation level. : World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, International Agency for Research on Cancer, "Flagyl, Flagyl ER (metronidazole) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more", "Clinical Practice Guidelines for Clostridium difficile Infection in Adults and Children: 2017 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA)", "Safety in Lactation: Metronidazole and tinidazole", "Bacterial vaginosis: review of treatment options and potential clinical indications for therapy", "Drug Resistance in the Microaerophilic Parasite, "A comparison of vancomycin and metronidazole for the treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea, stratified by disease severity", "Acneiform facial eruptions: a problem for young women", "Metrogyl Metronidazole Product Information", "Metronidazole (IARC Summary & Evaluation, Supplement7, 1987)", "Prenatal exposure to metronidazole and risk of childhood cancer: a retrospective cohort study of children younger than 5 years", 10.1002/(sici)1097-0142(19981001)83:7<1461::aid-cncr25>3.0.co;2-1, "Epidemiologic evaluation of pharmaceuticals with limited evidence of carcinogenicity", "Flagyl 375 U.S. Prescribing Information", "Agents Classified by the IARC Monographs, Volumes 1124", "Outbreak of Stevens-Johnson syndrome/toxic epidermal necrolysis associated with mebendazole and metronidazole use among Filipino laborers in Taiwan", 10.1345/1542-6270(2002)036<0971:lodlrw>2.0.co;2, "Drug Interactions: Cytochrome P450 Drug Interaction Table", "Targeting the American market for medicines, ca.