The events of 1948 are commemorated by Palestinians both in the Palestinian territories and elsewhere on 15 May, a date known as Nakba Day. [124] In May 2009 the political party headed by Israeli foreign minister Avigdor Lieberman introduced a bill that would outlaw all Nakba commemorations, with a three-year prison sentence for such acts of remembrance. Peaceful coexistence (Russian: , romanized: Mirnoye sosushchestvovaniye) was a theory, developed and applied by the Soviet Union at various points during the Cold War in the context of primarily MarxistLeninist foreign policy and adopted by Soviet-allied socialist states, according to which the Socialist Bloc could peacefully coexist with Kapeliouk, Amnon (1987): "New Light on the IsraeliArab Conflict and the Refugee Problem and Its Origins". [18] Protests about these environmental problems played a large part in the Peaceful Revolution. "Containment and the Cold War: Reexaming the Doctrine of Containment as a Grand Strategy Driving US Cold War Interventions", Truman Comments on Greek Politicking, 1947, Truman Library website with papers related to the Truman Doctrine, Full text, audio, video excerpt of the speech, Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, 1952 Puerto Rican constitutional referendum, Presidential Library, Museum, and gravesite, 1944 Democratic Party vice presidential candidate selection, Harry S. Truman home and National Historic Site, United States Senate election in Missouri, 1934, 1952 Democratic Party presidential primaries, 19471948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine, North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972, Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union, 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States, American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation, United States involvement in regime change, Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War, Ambassadors of Turkey to the United States, Ambassadors of the United States to Turkey, Consulate General of the United States, Istanbul, Permanent Mission of Turkey to the United Nations, 2008 United States consulate in Istanbul attack, 2013 United States embassy bombing in Ankara. An Interview With Benny Morris", "Calling a Spade a Spade: The 1948 Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine", "United Nations General Assembly Resolution 194", "Book Review: Palestine Betrayed by Efraim Karsh", 'Ben-Gurions uncensored diary revealed: 'Pester and motivate the refugees to move eastward',', 'Jewish soldiers and civilians looted Arab neighbors' property en masse in '48,', "Total Registered Refugees per Country and Area", Assistance To Palestine Refugees UN Doc A/1905, "Israeli Emergency Regulations & The Defense (Emergency) Regulations of 1945", "THE FORGOTTEN REFUGEES: the causes of the post-1948 Jewish Exodus from Arab Countries", "Lyn Julius: Recognising the plight of Jewish refugees from Arab countries", "Palestinians warn of executing Israeli "absentee property" law in Jerusalem", "Burying the Nakba: How Israel Systematically Hides Evidence of 1948 Expulsion of Arabs", "Nakba, Even as Israel Cuts Them Off From Their Sources", "Permanent Homes for Palestinian Refugees", "Israeli legislation raises loyalty issue", "Ex-education minister calls for Nakba studies in school", "Congress considers recognizing Jewish refugees", "Jewish refugees bill being considered by U.S. House of Representatives", "House members seek recognition for Jewish refugees from Arab countries", The Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions, "Rewriting The History of 1948: The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Question Revisited", The Peel Commission Report from the United Nations, UN report on pre-war non-Jewish population, United Nations Programme of Assistance to the Palestinian People, Institute for Palestine Studies publishes 1937 Ben-Gurion letter, iNakba is a mobile app enabling users to locate, learn and contribute information about Palestinian localities destroyed in 1948, The Origins and Evolution of the Palestine Problem, Villages depopulated during the 1948 Palestinian exodus, Palestinian Arab towns and villages depopulated during the 1948 Palestinian exodus, North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972, Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union, 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States, American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation, United States involvement in regime change, Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War, Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire, Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent, Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent, Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction, Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc, Canadian Indian residential school system, Violence against Hindus in independent India, Attacks by Islamic extremists in Bangladesh, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight&oldid=1118761755, Articles with dead external links from August 2018, Articles with permanently dead external links, CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown, Wikipedia extended-confirmed-protected pages, Articles with unsourced statements from February 2012, Articles with unsourced statements from March 2021, Articles with unsourced statements from April 2017, Articles with incomplete citations from January 2020, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, 4.9 million (Registered with UNRWAincluding descendants and re-settled). [45], The largest of these was the New Forum (German:Neues Forum). [9] The exodus was a central component of the fracturing, dispossession and displacement of Palestinian society, known as the Nakba,[10][11] in which between 400 and 600 Palestinian villages were destroyed, village wells were poisoned in a biological warfare programme to prevent Palestinians returning,[12] and other sites subject to Hebraization of Palestinian place names,[13] and also refers to the wider period of war itself and the subsequent oppression up to the present day.[14]. A fundamental shift in Soviet policy toward the Eastern Bloc nations under Mikhail Gorbachev in the late 1980s was the prelude to widespread demonstrations against the Socialist Unity Party, which had ruled East Germany since the country was founded on 7 October 1949. [23][24], After the first Libyan civil war, violence occurred involving various armed groups who fought against Gaddafi but refused to lay down their arms when the war ended in October 2011. The Truman Doctrine is an American foreign policy that pledged American support for democracies against authoritarian threats. Although France was not officially part of NATO's command structure, there was an understanding, formalised by regular joint exercises in West Germany, that France would go to the aid of NATO, should the Warsaw Pact attack. The first live reports from the demonstration in Wenceslas Square appeared on Federal Television (and were quickly cut off, after one of the participants denounced the present government in favour of Alexander Dubek). It also extrapolates from 1931 British census data to estimate that over 70,280 Palestinian houses were destroyed in this period.[99]. [5] An organised mass demonstration took place in Wenceslas Square in central Prague (demonstrations recurred there throughout the following days). After the entry into the cabinet on 5 February 1990, all nine new "ministers" traveled with Modrow to Bonn for talks with the West German government on 13 February. According to COHRE and BADIL (p.41), unlike other laws that were designed to establish Israel's "legal" control over lands, this body of law focused on formulating a "legal" definition for the people (mostly Arabs) who had left or been forced to flee from these lands. The Changing Structure and Faces of Poverty after 1989", New Czechoslovakian Leaders Are As Stunned As Their People, "Havel at Columbia: The Velvet Revolution", Velvet Revolution on web project of Institute of Contemporary History, Prague, In the footsteps of November 17 - Czech.cz. Many scholarly studies and daily newspaper essays, as well as some 1948 Jewish war veterans' memoirs have begun presenting the more balanced narrative (at times called onwards a "post-Zionist"). Colombian Heads of State; Colombian Profiles and Personalities; Moments and Events in Colombia. The Ministry of Culture released anti-Communist literature for public checkouts in libraries, effectively ending decades of censorship. Coffee is a drink prepared from roasted coffee beans.Darkly colored, bitter, and slightly acidic, coffee has a stimulating effect on humans, primarily due to its caffeine content. In addition, the report attributes 22% of the departures to "fears" and "a crisis of confidence" affecting the Palestinian population. On 14 July 1958, a group that identified as the Free Officers, a secret military group led by Brigadier Abd al-Karim Qasim, overthrew the monarchy. "[73], According to Morris[18]:492 altogether 200,000230,000 Palestinians left in this stage. "This regulation has been used to exclude a land owner from his own land so that it could be judged as unoccupied, and then expropriated under the 'Land Acquisition (Validation of Acts and Compensation) Law (1953)'. They blocked all escape routes and attacked the students. To this figure, the report's compilers add the operations of the Irgun and Lehi, which "directly (caused) some 15% of the emigration". Bogot (/ b o t /, also UK: / b -/, US: / b o t /, Spanish pronunciation: ()), officially Bogot, Distrito Capital, abbreviated Bogot, D.C., and formerly known as Santa Fe de Bogot (Spanish: [santa fe e oota]; lit. After an election win for a coalition of parties that supported German reunification, the political path within the GDR was clear. (2008). [126] Following public criticism the bill draft was changed, the prison sentence dropped and instead the Minister of Finance would have the authority to reduce state funding for Israeli institutions that hold the commemorations. A reward of 10,000 Iraqi dinar was offered for his capture[25] and a large-scale search began. Truman made the plea in the midst of the Greek Civil War (19461949). Acheson laid out the "domino theory" in the starkest terms, comparing a communist state to a rotten apple that could spread its infection to an entire barrel. The numbers attending grew and on 4 September 1989, it became a demonstration of over 1000 people in front of the church. Rather than stifle the East Germans' protests, the Tiananmen Square demonstration was further inspiration for their desire to instigate change. Group. He added that covering the topic in schools could address some of the racial tensions that exist in Israeli society. [5] The Socialist Youth Union (SSM/SZM, proxy of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia) organised a mass demonstration on 17 November to commemorate International Students Day and the fiftieth anniversary of the murder of student Jan Opletal[6] by the Nazi government.[5]. [citation needed] In January 1990, the Soviet Union sent understanding signals by appealing to West Germany for food deliveries. [74] Party official Gnter Schabowski announced at a press conference on the evening of Thursday 9 November 1989 that East Germans were free to travel through the checkpoints of the Berlin Wall and the inner German border. In his eighteen-minute speech, he stated:.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}. They and many of their descendants remain refugees. Vandenberg was impressed, and advised Truman to appear before Congress and "scare the hell out of the American people. Yehuda Slutzky, ""Summary of the Hagana Book"", pp. Microsofts Activision Blizzard deal is key to the companys mobile gaming efforts. Hardly anyone thought that the Communist State could collapse so quickly. [9] The left-wing attempted to retaliate, but were outgunned by the British-backed government and subjected to the White Terror. The resolution accepted the definition of Palestinian refugees as "persons of Arab origin who, after 29 November 1947, left territory at present under the control of the Israel authorities and who were Palestinian citizens at that date" and; "Persons of Arab origin who left the said territory after 6 August 1924 and before 29 November 1947 and who at that latter date were Palestinian citizens; 2. [27], Abd al-Karim Qasim's sudden coup took the U.S. government by surprise. The Communist Party seized power on 25 February 1948. Medical care became available to the public at no cost, but providing housing for all was a task that the government was not able to complete. [54], On 7 November 1989, the entire Cabinet of the East German government, the 44-member Council of Ministers, led by Prime Minister Willi Stoph, resigned as a consequence of the political upheaval caused by the mass exodus of citizens via the Hungarian and Czechoslovakian borders and the ongoing protests. Cambridge, Great Britain: Cambridge University Press. [18]:9099 According to historian Benny Morris, the period was marked by Palestinian Arab attacks and Jewish defensiveness, increasingly punctuated by Jewish reprisals. The first anti-government demonstrations occurred in 1988 (the Candle Demonstration, for example) and 1989, but these were dispersed and participants were repressed by the police. By June 1951, UNWRA had reduced the number of registered refugees to 876,000 after many false and duplicate registrations had been weeded out. Following the death of Joseph Stalin earlier in 1953, new leaders attempted to "de-Stalinize" the Soviet Union causing unrest in the Eastern Bloc and members of the Warsaw Pact. While the current government emphasizes that the US-South Korea alliance is central for the countrys security, the long-term strategic challenge will be to balance carefully relations with the US, but also with China and other regional actors in an increasingly volatile security environment. Basketball Players. [40] Many of these were Palestinian Arab leaders, middle and upper-class Palestinian Arab families from urban areas. After the vote to oust Honecker passed, Stasi chief Erich Mielke "got nasty," and accused Honecker of political corruption. [12], Similarly, when Egypt and Syria united to form the United Arab Republic (UAR) under the banner of pan-Arabism in 1958, Iraqi politicians found themselves in a vulnerable position. They came here because they wanted to, as Zionists. [18]:65 Simha Flapan wrote that attacks by the Irgun and Lehi resulted in Palestinian Arab retaliation and condemnation. The attention of the commanders of the Alexandroni Brigade was turned to reducing the Mount Carmel pocket. Die Ausreise aus der DDR in der Erinnerung von bersiedler-Eltern und -Kindern, Hftlingsdeals mit der DDR Menschen gegen Maisladungen, "The Cold War's Forgotten Victims: Avenging East Germans Killed in Bulgaria", The Hopes of East German Refugees (August 8, 1989), Snipping away at the Iron Curtain: when Hungary opened its Austrian border archive, 1989, Hungary allows 7000 East Germans to emigrate West, States Parties to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol, Historic East German refugee train rolls again, West German TV: the class enemy in the front room, China's pro-democracy protests struck hope and fear in East Germany, How 'Gorbi' Spoiled East Germany's 40th Birthday Party, Security Forces Storm Protester in East Germany, We Are the People' A Peaceful Revolution in Leipzig. The Truman Doctrine is an American foreign policy that pledged American support for democracies against authoritarian threats. [52], Palestinians fled the city of Haifa en masse, in one of the most notable flights of this stage. [8], Seven weeks after the Axis powers abandoned Greece in October 1944, the British helped retake Athens from the victorious National Liberation Front (EAM), controlled effectively by the Greek Communist Party (KKE). The Prime Minister agreed to personally guarantee that no violence would be used against the people; however he would "protect socialism, about which no discussion is possible". Factors involved in the exodus include Jewish military advances, destruction of Arab villages, psychological warfare, fears of another massacre by Zionist militias after the Deir Yassin massacre,[18]:239240 which caused many to leave out of panic, direct expulsion orders by Israeli authorities, the demoralizing impact of wealthier classes fleeing,[19] the typhoid epidemic in some areas caused by Israeli well-poisoning,[20] collapse in Palestinian leadership and Arab evacuation orders,[21][22] and an unwillingness to live under Jewish control. Dulles also feared that a chain reaction would occur throughout the Middle East and that the governments of Iraq, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, and Iran would be doomed. 3 December 1989 The Socialist Unity Party's stepping down. Actors and members of the audience in a Prague theatre, together with Vclav Havel and other prominent members of Charter 77 and other dissident organisations, established the Civic Forum (Obansk frum, an equivalent of the Slovak Public Against Violence for the territory of the Czech Republic) as a mass popular movement for reforms. [18]:616 In May 1947, two months after Truman's request, a large majority of Congress approved $400 million in military and economic aid to Greece and Turkey. In 1954, more than one third of Israel's Jewish population lived on absentee property and nearly a third of the new immigrants (250,000 people) settled in urban areas abandoned by Arabs. The war is generally divided into two phases with an interlude: from August 1927 to 1937, the KMT-CCP Alliance collapsed during the Northern Expedition, and the Nationalists controlled most of China. In his memoirs, West German chancellor Helmut Kohl wrote that he had confronted Gorbachev in June 1989 with the view that German unity would arrive as surely as the Rhine would arrive at the sea; Gorbachev did not dispute this. Educating Change in Colombia; Travels in Colombia; Primary Documents. [46] On 20 September 1989 it applied to field candidates in the March 1990 general election. Nets-Zehngut, Rafi. News. [need quotation to verify] It consists of a competition between two or more states to have superior armed forces; a competition concerning production of weapons, the growth of a military, and the aim of superior military technology, the term is also used to describe any long-term escalating competitive For the first time during the Velvet Revolution, the "radical" demand to abolish the article of the Constitution establishing the "leading role" of the Communist Party was expressed by ubomr Feldek at a meeting of Public Against Violence. The citizens of Czechoslovakia watched these events on TV through both foreign and domestic channels. [8] Lord Salter continued to make suggestions[9] as to how to implement development projects despite massive Iraqi dislike of his presence. They understood their mission as deposing the corrupt regimes that weakened a unified Arab nation and thrown their countries into distress. The immediate impetus for the revolution came from developments in neighbouring countries and in the Czechoslovak capital. [38] Some Palestinian Arab leaders sent their families abroad. Of the total of 418 localities cited in Khalidi, 292 (70 percent) were completely destroyed and 90 (22 percent) "largely destroyed". The entire Presidium, including General Secretary Milo Jake, resigned, and Karel Urbnek, a more moderate Communist, was named General Secretary. Roskilde, while having no military significance, is the second-largest city on Zealand and located close to the Danish capital Copenhagen (the distance from central Copenhagen to Roskilde is only 35km or 22mi). He said that order must be preserved, that socialism was the only alternative for Czechoslovakia, and criticised protest groups. [20] Qasim was a member of the generation that had launched the revolution in Egypt, and had grown up in an era where radicalism and Pan-Arabism were circulating in schools, including high schools and military academies. [18]:615. Of 370 new Jewish settlements established between 1948 and 1953, 350 were on absentee property. "Acheson and the Formulation of the Truman Doctrine", Frazier, Robert. The Truman Doctrine underpinned American Cold War policy in Europe and around the world. It was the Soviet Union's most important trading partner, although it was very much subordinate. Clashes at the Turkish Ambassador's Residence in Washington, D.C. United States recognition of the Armenian genocide, Congressional Caucus on Turkey and Turkish Americans, Federation of Turkish American Associations, Foundation for Political, Economic and Social Research, Assembly of Turkish American Associations, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truman_Doctrine&oldid=1119729288, Foreign policy doctrines of the United States, History of the foreign relations of the United States, Wikipedia introduction cleanup from October 2022, Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from October 2022, All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles with unsourced statements from March 2020, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, Edwards, Lee. In theory, watching it was banned, but it was tolerated as it couldn't be prevented. For the concept of a revolution which is peaceful, see, Opening of the Hungarian and Czechoslovak borders, Fall of the Berlin Wall and border opening, Political situation during the transition. Historian Eric Foner writes that the Doctrine "set a precedent for American assistance to anticommunist regimes throughout the world, no matter how undemocratic, and for the creation of a set of global military alliances directed against the Soviet Union."[5]. The Israeli government attempted to resettle them permanently by initiating a subsidized "build-your-own home" program. [18]:130 In attacks that were not authorised in advance, several communities were expelled by the Haganah and several others were chased away by the Irgun. Colombian Americans (Spanish studying in universities across the country (Madrigal, 2013; Sassen-Koob, 1989). Ephraim Karsh refers to Papp's assertion of a master plan by Jews to expel Arabs, as contrived. It was clear to the villages in the Galilee, that if they left, return was far from imminent. In the first few months of the civil war, the climate in the Mandate of Palestine became volatile, although throughout this period both Arab and Jewish leaders tried to limit hostilities. [18]:209211. His closest foreign adviser, Horst Teltschik, took heart though from opinion polls on 20 November 1989, which showed 70% of West Germans in favor of reunification and 48% considered it possible within ten years. Flapan, 1987, p. 95; also quoted by Finkelstein, 1995, p. 82. "The Israeli National Information Center and collective memory of the Israeli-Arab conflict". It dealt with Washington's concern over communism's domino effect, it enabled a media-sensitive presentation of the doctrine that won bipartisan support, and it mobilized American economic power to modernize and stabilize unstable regions without direct military intervention. [85] Israeli documents from 1948 use the term "to cleanse" when referring to uprooting Arabs. According to Morris, "The Haganah mortar attacks of 2122 April [on Haifa] were primarily designed to break Arab morale in order to bring about a swift collapse of resistance and speedy surrender. Iraq became isolated within the Arab world, as highlighted by its exclusion from the "Treaty of Arab Solidarity" in January 1957. Following this they banned music from foreign countries. Civic Forum demonstrated its capacity to disrupt the political order and thereby establish itself as the legitimate voice of the nation in negotiations with the state. This group was markedly Pan-Arab in character. Edgar O'Ballance, a military historian, adds, Israeli vans with loudspeakers drove through the streets ordering all the inhabitants to evacuate immediately, and such as were reluctant to leave were forcibly ejected from their homes by the triumphant Israelis whose policy was now openly one of clearing out all the Arab civil population before them From the surrounding villages and hamlets, during the next two or three days, all the inhabitants were uprooted and set off on the road to Ramallah No longer was there any "reasonable persuasion". Hans Modrow became the prime minister and 17 November he formed a 28-member Council of Minister which included 11 non-SED ministers. Bogotazo riots. "[34], The 1958 military coup that overthrew the Hashemite monarchy brought to power members of "rural groups that lacked the cosmopolitan thinking found among Iraqi elites". On the day the Berlin Wall fell, West German chancellor Kohl and his foreign minister Hans-Dietrich Genscher were on a state visit to Poland, which was cut short for the new situation. Starts the bipartisan violence ("La Violencia") 1950: This caused a lot of resentment and helped to activate the opposition movement. This demonstration gave average students an opportunity to join others and express their opinions. [72], This period of the exodus was characterized by Israeli military accomplishments; Operation Yoav, in October, this cleared the road to the Negev, culminating in the capture of Beersheba; Operation Ha-Har that same month which cleared the Jerusalem Corridor from pockets of resistance; Operation Hiram, at the end of October, resulted in the capture of the Upper Galilee; Operation Horev in December 1948 and Operation Uvda in March 1949, completed the capture of the Negev (the Negev had been allotted to the Jewish State by the United Nations) these operations were met with resistance from the Palestinian Arabs who were to become refugees. The opening of the border gate then set in motion a peaceful chain reaction, at the end of which there was no longer a GDR or an Iron Curtain, and the Eastern Bloc had disintegrated. [10] Under Gaddafi, per capita income in the country rose to more than US$11,000, the fifth-highest in Africa. Nuri al-Said, the Iraqi Prime Minister during most of the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s, was interested in pursuing the idea of a federation of Arab States of the Fertile Crescent, but was less enthusiastic about a Pan-Arab state. The Leipzig "Monday demonstrations" stemmed from Monday prayer meetings at the Nikolaikirche (Church of St Nicholas). (2007). The 1948 War against Israel was an experience that intensified the Egyptian Free Officers' sense of duty. "[46][47], By 1 May 1948, two weeks before the Israeli Declaration of Independence, nearly 175,000 Palestinians (approximately 25%) had already fled. [7], The Truman Doctrine became a metaphor for aid to keep a nation from communist influence. As a result of the overthrow of the Iraqi Hashemite dynasty, the coup d'tat established the Iraqi Republic. [31] At its head was a three-man sovereignty council, composed of members of Iraq's three main communal/ethnic groups. [18]:86 Husayni lacked the resources to mount a full-scale assault on the Yishuv, and restricted himself to sanctioning minor attacks and to tightening the economic boycott. Dezember 1989 ein DDR-weites Signal. [50] On 5 June 2020, the GNA captured all of western Libya, including the capital Tripoli. The U.S. Senate ratified the treaty, but the Colombian Senate, 1948. [75], After some initial confusion, with 20,000 people arriving at the Bornholmer Strae border crossing by 11.30 pm, chanting "Open the gate", Harald Jger, a border official, allowed people to pass through into West Berlin. They all had similar aims, wanting greater democracy and environmental reforms. Please read the, Barn Kayaolu, "Strategic imperatives, Democratic rhetoric: The United States and Turkey, 194552.". There were mass arrests and beatings at the Leipzig demonstrations on 11 September and going through until 2 October. London: Palestine Land Society and Palestinian Return Centre, 2001. Coffee is a drink prepared from roasted coffee beans.Darkly colored, bitter, and slightly acidic, coffee has a stimulating effect on humans, primarily due to its caffeine content. The corrido (Spanish pronunciation: [korio]) is a popular narrative metrical tale and poetry that forms a ballad.The songs are often about oppression, history, daily life for criminals, the vaquero lifestyle, and other socially relevant topics. After that it was still possible to leave legally, by applying for and receiving an Ausreiseantrag[de] (permission to leave). Those driving the reform process within the GDR included intellectuals and church figures who had been in underground opposition for several years, people attempting to flee the country, and peaceful demonstrators who were no longer willing to yield to the threat of violence and repression. [10] The 1st French Army, with its headquarters at Strasbourg, on the Franco-German border, was the main field headquarters controlling operations in support of NATO in West Germany, as well as defending France. [citation needed]. A cabinet was created, composed of a broad spectrum of Iraqi political movements, including two National Democratic Party representatives, one member of al-Istiqlal, one Ba'ath representative and one Marxist. During the American Revolution, George Washington, Abigail Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson and others rose to prominence. [18]:6886, On 18 December 1947 the Haganah approved an aggressive defense strategy, which in practice meant a limited implementation of "Plan May" also known as "Plan Gimel" or "Plan C"[42] ("Tochnit Mai" or "Tochnit Gimel"), which, produced in May 1946, was the Haganah master plan for the defence of the Yishuv in the event of the outbreak of new troubles the moment the British were gone.
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